Art history comparison of two works Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Art history comparison of two works - Essay Example River in the Catskills captures the effects of industrialization which was slowly but surely making its presence felt even in the bucolic landscape of the Catskill Mountains. Albert Bierstadt’s The Buffalo Trail retains much of the landscape without depicting any interference of modern life. Coles work is in contrast from his earlier work, and here we see there are no large trees to frame the picture and thus what we get is an open landscape. In the middle distance can be seen a locomotive engine and some railroad cars. In the foreground can be seen a man looking out at these modern contraptions, while beside him can be seen trees which have been cut down. Bierstadt’s painting, on the other hand, binds the attention of the viewer by the tall trees in the foreground and the beginnings of a storm which just may unleash itself at any moment. The two paintings differ from each other most pointedly in the use of color. Coles painting uses a large number of colors from the palette, while Bierstadt’s landscape is made up of muted colors, the emphasis being on the grays and browns. In Coles work there is no large tree, while the other painting shows the grandeur of nature, both by incorporating the big trees as well as the herd of buffaloes crossing the river. Thomas Cole’s River in the Catskills has confounded scholars because it â€Å"does not readily fall into an established category of landscape painting† (Wallach, Alan, June2002) but there is no doubt that it is a pastoral scene where we can see the distress of the artist at the encroachment of modernity. This painting is also more realistic, since we see the artist bringing in the idea of change that will necessarily follow whenever inventions begin to coexist in this pastoral scene. Bierstadt’s landscape is on the other hand a work in which we can see how the painter has given us an illusion of space. He achieves this by keeping the middle ground and background clear of unnecessary details and in

Explain the integers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Explain the integers - Essay Example All authors believe that teachers should use a variety of representations and even some relatively unconventional tools. Following is the explanation of various approaches towards teaching mathematics in schools. Mental mathematics, linking cubes, drawings, mental images, concrete materials, equations, base-ten blocks, computer programs can all be used with the goal of students to find the representations they personally can manipulate (physically and or mentally) with most ease and meaning. By choosing the representation that represents how they personally think, students can attach meaning to the situation and it becomes more accessible. Parents should also learn their childrens learning style even if it differs from their own. Parents are also encouraged to "pretend" they enjoy mathematics and can do them "as well and anybody" (Dedyna, 2002, Press). For Thompson, one of the simplest ways of teaching vocabulary is to explain the concepts first, and then attach the term to it. This strategy can be used in conjunction with etymologies (word origins) because when students know these roots, they can make connections between common English words with which they are familiar and mathematics terms. After the space race focus, researchers world wide have in the last twenty years taught us a lot about childrens understanding of numeracy and how they come to develop these ideas. Young-Love ridge (2002) drew attention to the fact that many of the understandings children had on entering school were not well matched to the curriculum and what they were taught. Baroody et al (2005) mentions the work of ten different researchers or research groups who assisted the understanding of childrens mathematical thinking in the last twenty years. Young-Love ridge (2005) acknowledged that teachers in Australia and United States that were given a framework, were better able facilitate their students learning. She valued the work of Fuson and Renick in the United

The Design Of Toughened Glass Columns Physical Education Essay

The Design Of Toughened Glass Columns Physical Education Essay Glass has clinched the attention of engineers and architects in recent years despite its brittle nature. As well as its aesthetic allure, the increasing knowledge of this material allows structural boundaries to be pushed and endless possibilities to arise. Glass facades, beams, and stairs are some of the structures that have been explored with. However, the prospect of using a glass column as a structural component, as opposed to an ornamental role, is of increasing interest. Various structural glass types are available and have proven to be sufficient, but toughened glass reigns as the strongest type, yet its capability to spontaneously shatter can also prove to be a liability. What is Glass? Glass is an inorganic, non-crystalline, solid, transparent material, renowned for its brittleness. Its molecular structure attributes to its brittleness, making it weak in tension (Chen; Lui, Ch.29) and without an ability to redistribute load or absorb impact energy. Potentially, glass is very strong, even exceeding the strength of structural steel. However, due to glass having fairly low fracture toughness, this is only achievable when glass contains no defects, as freshly drawn fibre might be (Rice; Dutton, 33). Glass does not yield, instead it fractures and its failure is stochastic, meaning that prediction for failure is based upon risk or statistics (ISE, 11). Glass does not adhere rigorously to stoichiometry as crystalline materials do, due to the ability to incrementally alter the properties of glass continuously by adding components/substances to modify its properties. For instance, adding potassium oxide to silica will change the glass properties (Clare, Ch.23). Although described as a solid, glass is rather a subset of the solid state. It is essentially an elastic solid below its transformation region, i.e. the glass transition state, and a liquid above it, glass has the attributes of a liquid apart from the ability to flow (Clare, Ch.23). There is a range of intricacies inherent within glass composition; this will later prove to greatly explain the complexities of glass behaviour. A Look at Glass Chemical and Physical Composition Unlike many other materials, glass consists of a geometrically irregular network of silicon and oxygen atoms, with alkaline parts in between (fig.1.4) (Haldimann; Luible; Overend, 4). As glass is an inorganic product of fusion, it consists of a number of chemical components. The chemical composition of glass has a significant impact on glass viscosity, the melting temperature Ts and the thermal expansion coefficient ÃŽÂ ±T of glass (Haldimann; Luible; Overend, 4). One of the main attributes of glass is its resistance to corrosion by acid and water (Chen; Lui, Ch. 29). There is a vast variety of different types of glass, however, the most prevalent type of glass in construction (approximately 90%), is soda lime silica glass (Dewhurst Macfarlane and Partners), and for other special applications, borosilicate glass is used. However, depending on the purpose for the glass, other types are available, such as Lead glass, borosilicate glass, glass fibre, vitreous silica, alminosilicate g lass, alkali-barium silicate glass, technical glass, glass ceramics, optical glass and sealing glass, to name but a few (Glass Online). Borosilicate glass consists of mainly silica (70-80%) and boric oxide (7-13%) with small amounts of the alkalis (sodium and potassium oxides) and aluminium oxide. Borosilicate glass has a considerably low alkali content, and hence, has an appreciable level of chemical durability and shock resistance (Glass Online). The chemical components of soda lime glass are as follows: 70% 74% SiO2 (silica) 12% 16% Na2O (sodium oxide) 5% 11% CaO (calcium oxide) 1% 3% MgO (magnesium oxide) 1% 3% Al2O3 (aluminium oxide) (Glass Online) Regardless of the specific type, the main constituent of glass is silica sand (Chen; Lui, Ch. 29). Sand alone can be used to make glass at a temperature of 1700oC; but the addition of other minerals and chemicals significantly lowers the melting temperature (Glass Online). For instance, the melting temperature for pure silica is approximately 1710oC, but it drops to 1300-1600oC through the addition of alkali (Haldimann; Luible; Overend, 4). Glass consists of a network formers and modifiers Fig. 29.1. Silicon and oxygen ions are bonded together (formers) forming a three dimensional structural network of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium (modifiers) ions (Chen; Lui, Ch. 29). Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), known as soda ash, is added to create a mixture of 75% silica (SiO2) and 25% of sodium oxide (Na2O), which will reduce the temperature of fusion to about 800oC (Glass Online). However, this concoction means the glass is produces water glass, meaning it is water-soluble. To give the glass stability, chemicals such as (CaO) and magnesium oxide (MgO) are added; which is achieved by adding limestone, which results in a pure inert glass (Glass Online). The viscosity of the liquid glass during the cooling phase increases constantly until solidification is achieved at about 1014Pas. The temperature at solidification is called glass transition temperature Tg and is about 530oC for soda lime silica glass. Contrasting crystalline materials, the transition between liquid and solid states occurs over a particular temperature range, instead of a single precise temperature (Fig. 1.5, Table 1.3). Small amounts of iron oxides are responsible for the greenish colour of soda lime silica glass. A reduced iron oxide content results in an extra clear glass, which is known as low iron glass, and is readily available (Haldimann; Luible; Overend, 6). Essentially, the composition of glass varies to appease a particular product and production method, which requires the raw materials to be weighed and mixed properly; as the consistency of the composition is vital in glass production (Glass Online). The essential physical properties of soda lime silica and borosilicate glass are summarised in Table 1.5. Optical properties depend on the thickness of the glass, the chemical composition, and the applied coatings. The most prominent of the glass properties, is its very high transparency within the visible range of wavelengths (ÃŽÂ »= 380-750nm). However, for different glass types, the exact profiles of non-transmitted radiation spectrum differ, but are in the wavelengths outside and near the infrared band (Fig. 1.6). A large percentage of UV radiation is absorbed as a result of O2 reaction in the glass, but long-wave infrared radiation (ÃŽÂ » The Making of Glass Essentially, glass is produced by rapid melt quenching of raw materials (reference); there are currently various methods by which glass is produced. The float process Fig 1.1 is the most practiced glass production method used today, which produces flat glass, attributing to 90% of the production worldwide. Although the steps vary, it is simply melting at 1600-1800oC, forming at 800-1600oC and cooling at 100-800 oC Haldimann; Luible; Overend, 1). The Pilkington Brothers introduced the float process in 1959. It has several advantages, such as low cost production, vast availability, superior optical quality, and allows for large stable glass panes to be manufactured. The production process is shown in Fig 1.2. Glass is produced by melted raw materials in a furnace at 1550oC. Subsequently, the molten glass is poured continuously at 1000oC on to a shallow pool of molten tin whose oxidation is prevented by inert atmosphere consisting of hydrogen and nitrogen. (Haldimann; Luible; Overend, 2 ). The glass floats onto the tine and spreads forming a smooth flat surface, with an even thickness of 6-7mm; it gradually cools and is drawn onto rollers, then entered into a long oven called a lehr that is heated at a temperature of 600oC. The thickness of the glass can be controlled within a range of 2-25mm, through adjusting the speed of the roller, whereby, reducing the speed increases the glass thickness. The glass is slowly cooled to prevent residual stresses being induced in the glass, after annealing, automated machines inspect the glass to check for obvious defects and imperfections. The glass can then be cut to a standard size of 3.21mÃÆ'- 6.00m, and stored. A disadvantage that arises from this method is that there is a discrepancy between the two faces of a glass sheet. Apparent diffusion of tin atoms into the glass surface occurs on the tin side, which could influence the behaviour of this surface when it is glued. The mechanical strength on the air side is greater tha n on the tin side, which occurs because of the transport rollers interacting with the tin side in the cooling area. This interaction with the rollers can reduce the strength of the glass as it can create surface flaws (Haldimann; Luible; Overend, 2). Fracture Mechanics in Glass As glass is unable to yield plastically ahead of fracture results in the fracture strength being highly sensitive to stress concentrations. To achieve accurate characterisation of the facture strength of glass, the nature and behaviour of the flaws must be integrated, as a result of surface flaws causing high stress concentrations (Haldimann; Luible; Overend, 49). The stress of glass is time dependent; yet, humidity causes stress corrosion resulting in flaws slowly growing when bared to a positive crack opening stress. Essentially, this is when a glass element is stressed below its momentary strength, fails after the time needed for the critical flaw to grow to its critical size (Haldimann; Luible; Overend, 49). These flaws are either inherent in the glass or a result of cutting, drilling, grinding, or an impact from the environment; humidity heightens the growth of cracks. Due to the cut edges in annealed glass being weaker than its flat surfaces, annealed glass beams are designed w ith lower stresses than glass plates. The onset of fast fracture is represented by this general equation: à Ã†â€™Ãƒ ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡ (à Ã¢â€š ¬a)= à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡ (EGc) (ISE, 57) Where a is the half length of the crack, E is the Youngs Modulus and Gc is the toughness of the glass Gc has units of kJ/m2 and is the toughness of the glass, sometimes known as the critical strain energy release rate. The equation shows that fast fracture will happen when in a material subjected to a stress à Ã†â€™, a crack reaches some critical size a or alternatively, when material containing cracks of size a is subjected to some critical stress à Ã†â€™. This is a mathematical representation of the trend in annealed glass to be stronger under short-term loading rather than long term. The purpose of glass modification processes such as toughening and heat strengthening is to prevent glass from experiencing tension in surface to avoid crack growth, so that fracture mechanics calculations need not be considered Fig 5.3. Professor Inglis (1913) discovered that a slot, hole, or notch in a metal plate was likely to reduce strength by a greater value than that predicted from simply considering the reduction in tensile area. It was proven that the stress field near the discontinuity is exaggerated by an amount that is reliant upon the radius of curvature relative to its length perpendicular to the stress field. The discontinuities or randomly distributed flaws across the surface are known as Griffith Flaws. Griffith flaws are apparent on the surface of glass, but the strength of the glass is coinciding with the presence of visible defects, which is usually the origin of the cracks that occur under an applied tensile stress. Accidental contact can damage the edges of a glass plate more significantly than any other region of the glass. The deflection or bending of the glass is usually able to absorb the energy from an impact on a glass face but an edge impact is resisted by the full in-plane stiffness of t he glass plate or beam and produces greater damage impulse. Once load is applied, stresses develop and concentrate at the tips of flaws or cracks, which usually go undetected by the naked eye. Griffith claimed that crack propagation occurs if energy release on crack growth is adequate enough to supply all the energy that is needed for the growth of cracks. Mathematically this is stated as à Ã†â€™c=à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¡EGc/à Ã¢â€š ¬a Where à Ã†â€™c is the stress required to fracture a plate with a crack of length 2a, E is Youngs Modulus and Gc is the critical elastic energy release ratio or toughness of the glass, with units of energy per unit plate thickness and per unit crack extension. This expression signifies the occurrence of fast fracture when a material is under stress that results in a crack of the size a. It is maintained by some that glass is able to reverse crack damage, i.e. heal a microcrack, if it reverts back to an unstressed state. On the other hand, the surface condition of glass sheet alters each time it is cleaned due to new microcracks surfacing. Therefore, the notion of damage reversal is up to the engineer to decide whether it is reliable in design (ISE, 57). Over time, momentary strength of loaded glass decreases, even if only subjected to static loads. This is a quintessential concept to grasp for the structural use of glass, and was demonstrated by Grenet (1899). Flaw and glass properties, stress history and the crack velocity-stress intensity relationship govern the growth of a surface flaw (Haldimann; Luible; Overend, 50). Structural Behaviour and Failure Characteristics of Glass Upon failure, glass does not yield, it fractures, and the failure is stochastic, meaning that the predicted failure is based on risk or statistical analysis (ISE, 11). However, glass is very strong, even stronger than steel. But the inherent low fracture toughness means that this optimum level of strength is only achievable when the glass is free from all defects. Ultimately, glass is brittle, without the ability to redistribute load or absorb energy (Rice; Dutton, 33). Due to the brittle nature of glass, it is important for the designer to have an insight into how the structure will behave if one or more of the glass elements fail; most importantly the safety implications should be assessed (ISE, 55). Fig 5.1 At low stress levels, the majority of materials tend to abide by Hooks law, in that stress and strain are proportional. Yet, a higher stress levels the material deforms plastically, but as glass is a brittle material, it simply fractures without warning instead. The mechanical properties of glass are displayed in Table 29.1 (Chen; Lui, Ch.29). The theoretical strength of glass is usually approximately a tenth of it elastic modulus. The density of the cracks rather than the theoretical breakage stress governs the failure stress of glass, whereby; glass compressive strength can reach a value of 10,000MPa, demonstrating that whilst in compression it is very strong. Conversely, in tension it fails, and this usually occurs when stress levels are less than 100MPa. It is the general consensus that glass failure originates from crack growth and surface flaws, where the stress is concentrated, as demonstrated in Fig 29.5 (Chen; Lui, Ch.29). To gain scope of how differently glass behaves relative to the most commonly used construction material, steel, is to observe the behaviour displayed in stress-strain curve: Glass molecular structure influences its mechanical properties, particularly its random irregular network of silicon and oxygen atoms. Its structure allows for no slip planes or dislocations so that macroscopic plastic flow transpires before fracture (Haldimann; Luible; Overend, 49). Glass failure is most likely to be initiated by surface cracks, because these tend to have the worst geometries and are subjected to the highest stresses due to bending. If the loads to which the glass is subjected do not create enough surface tension to overcome the surface compression, no crack will propagate. Toughening, therefore, increases the effective strength and impact resistance of the glass. Should an external load overcome the precompression and cause a crack to propagated, then the stored energy due to prestress will cause the cracks to spread immediately in all directions and the pane of the glass will fragment explosively (Rice; Dutton, 33). Static fatigue of glass, also known as sub-criti cal crack growth is a phenomenon of glass. An applied sub critical stress causes cracks of flaws to slowly grow with time, until a length is reached, at this point the stress intensity at the crack tip reaches a critical value. Consequently, rapid fracture occurs due to the highly strained atomic bonds swiftly breaking at the crack tip. Stress corrosion is a term used to describe the relationship between the crack growth velocity and the stress intensity factor. Apart from applied stress, there are a number of factors that hasten slow crack growth, such as alkaline solutions and increasing temperature (ISE, 56). Plastic flow is not possible in glass, therefore when the glass surface is in a state of tension; the flaws produce high stress concentrations. The flaws are random and can take any path; therefore the failure strength can only be determined through statistical analysis. Therefore, the basis of risk of fracture of glass that is determined does not give assurance that the glass can withstand the designed load. Strength of glass relies on the load duration and environmental conditions; Fig 29.6 shows the strength-time relationship (Chen; Lui, Ch. 29). The time to failure and applied stress relationship is expressed mathematically as à Ã†â€™nT= constant Where à Ã†â€™ is stress T is duration and n is a constant (ISE, 56). The value of n varies, and Sedlack (1995) as well as Pilkington Glass Consultants recommend n = 16 for design purposes. This equation suggests that loads applied at an exceedingly long duration will allow allowable stresses to decrease to insignificant values. However, in reality, this is not true (ISE, 56). Unlike steel that yields and flows when locally overstressed, glass breaks when it is overstressed. For that reason, it is vital that the designer attempts to eradicate possible design features that may result in stress concentrations. Such as bolted glass has been developed in such a way that, stress concentrations are avoided around the bolts; this attention to detail cannot be readily detected (ISE, 58). To avoid force being transmitted from glass to another material, as this causes stress concentrations to develop; soft setting blocks, fibre gaskets, and protective brushes have been implemented to limit this (ISE, 58). Glass is almost perfectly elastic, linear and is isotropi c, and is not subjected to fatigue (Haldimann; Luible; Overend, 8). Glass only fails by brittle fracture, and cycling loading can cause the growth of cracks. Most materials have a fatigue limit, whereby there is stress amplitude where facture does not happen or fracture only happens after a great number of cycles (>108). Additionally, although many materials have a fatigue ratio, which is the ratio of the fatigue limit to yield strength, but since glass does not yield, this attribute is obsolete (ISE, 58). As glass fails in tension or by buckling, the highest tensile stresses that occur from applied loads should be considered when finding the elastic stability of glass element. Applied compressive stresses can cause tensile strains, but tensile strains can even occur as a result of the Poissons effect from compressive stresses (ISE, 60). Glass failure occurs when the tensile stress is equal or greater than the characteristic strength, which can be calculated using Eqn 29.5. The memb rane stress is constant across the thickness of the plate, whilst the bending stress can be taken as varying linearly. Thus, superimposing the membrane and bending stresses can determine the total stress on the glass (Chen; Lui, Ch. 29). Furthermore, the deflection of glass elements is an important aspect to consider; and such behavioural patterns like toughened glass deflecting more than annealed glass (even when of the same strength) due to toughened glass being considerably thinner, should be taken into consideration (ISE, 56). Glass plates are typically thin so they demonstrate large displacements. The use of thin plate linear bending theory will produce incorrect results. Therefore, the large deflection theory should be used instead to calculate the maximum stress when checking stress against failure. Failure generally is taken to be at the point when the maximum tensile stress equals the glass fracture stress (Chen; Lui, Ch.29). Glass can be quite sensitive to any impact and will result in fracture; the common causes of glass breakage are: Excessive stress form wind pressure or other loads Thermal stress due to differential temperature on different parts of the pane Buckling due to large compression Surface or edge damage Deep scratches or gouges Severe weld splatter Direct contact with metal (e.g. window aluminium frame) Impurities like nickel sulphide (NiS) Excessive deflection bringing glass in contact with other hard objects. (Chen; Lui, Ch. 29) Hence, the strength of glass relies on these aspects: the duration of the applied load, environmental conditions, humidity, size of the stressed area, the distribution of stresses across the stressed area, the condition of the surfaces and edges of the glass (ISE, 57). Prestressing glass, notably by heat-strengthened and toughened are the two basic types, enables the glass to maintain compression on the surface, therefore, eliminating crack propagation (ISE, 59). Survival probability of scratched glass loaded at a constant rate Eqn; Time dependence of glass strength Eqn Fig 5.4 Fig 5.5 Fig 5.6 The Different Types of Structural Glass Glass, itself, is highly susceptible to fracture, which results in a lot of shattered glass, and ultimately, health and safety implications. The fracture of glass stems from the surface flaws. Thus, the industry has developed various modification methods to achieve an increase in the practical strength of glass, by introducing local high compressive stresses near its surfaces (Chen; Lui, Ch.29). By common practice, these modifications are usually implemented on float glass. Tinted Glass Tinted glass is also known as heat-absorbing glass, and is produced by colorant being added to normal clear glass. Light transmittance varies depending on colour and thickness, with a range between 14 to 85%. As a result, tinted glass is not and heat-strengthened glass is typically used when making tinted glass (Chen; Lui, Ch.29). Coated Glass Placing layers of coating onto a glass surface makes coated glass, and there are two types: the solar control (reflective) and the low emissivity types. Structural strength of coated glass is only indirectly affected when the thermal stress is altered, but coated glass is more associated with its energy absorption and light transmission attributes. Therefore, to prevent excessive thermal stress, heat-strengthened glass should be used to produce coated glass (Chen; Lui, Ch.29). Wired Glass A common misperception is that wired glass is stronger than unmodified annealed glass, due to the wires being seen as reinforcement. However, the wires actually induce cracks and weaken the glass. Yet, wired glass is able to hold together upon being broken (ISE, 22). Wired glass is produced when a steel mesh is implemented onto the molten glass during the rolling process (the rolling portion of the flat glass process). It has a high rate of breakage due to sunlight, and hence is weak in resisting thermal stress. Although it is still weak in resisting thermal stress, polished wired glass is used for fire rating since after it breaks, it sticks to the wire mesh and prevents smoke passing. Figure 29.8 shows a damaged wired glass panel under sunlight (Chen; Lui, Ch.29). Annealed Glass Annealed glass panels do not have any heat treatment (Chen; Lui, Ch.29); it is produced using the float process (as described previously) (ISE, 22). It is usually used when large glass panels need to be used, and it is too large for any heat treatment (Chen; Lui, Ch.29). The behaviour of annealed glass is typically perfectly elastic until fracture occurs. Upon fracture, large, sharp shards emerge which are dangerous. However, annealed glass panes do not spontaneously fracture, and due to alternate load paths across the glass pane, it may not fall out of its frame upon failure. Although there is no creep or fatigue in the metallurgical sense, slow crack growth occurs as a result of cyclical loading, whereby, if this glass is under permanent loading, the deformation increases with below 3% over a 50-year period. Imposed strains, such as bending and thermal stresses, as well as instant impact, causes elastic deformation resulting in brittle fracture of annealed glass (ISE, 22). Annealed glass is not very strong, so it is weak in thermal resistance. The allowable stress is approximately 15N/mm2 (Chen; Lui, Ch.29). Fig 2.4 Fig 2.5 Fig 2.6 Heat-Strengthened Glass Heat-strengthened glass is created using a similar process to toughening, with the exceptions that there is a lower cooling rate (Haldimann; Luible; Overend, 12) and the level of the produced prestress is lower. The fracture behaviour, however, is more akin to that of annealed glass rather than toughened (ISE, 24), with larger fragments than that of thermally toughened glass (Haldimann; Luible; Overend, 12). The compressive surface stress for heat-strengthened glass lies in a range between 24 and 69N/mm2 and European Standards quote that the pattern of breakage ranges between 25 to 40N/mm2 (ISE, 24). Heat-strengthened glass is commonly used in laminated glass assemblies, but the nature of its large fracture pattern causes a significant remaining load-bearing capacity upon failure of the glass. The stress gradient depends on the thickness of the glass and as the glass must be cooled down gradually, thus, thick glasses (exceeding 12mm) cannot be heat-strengthened using the toughening p rocess (Haldimann; Luible; Overend, 12). Laminated Glass Laminated glass is two or more glass panes bonded with an interlayer of polyvinyl butyral (PVB) or resins, such as acrylic. The thickness of the interlayer varies between 0.4mm to 6mm. A disadvantage of laminated glass is the validity of composite action. Although usually only two layers are bonded, over 25 layers have been effectively bonded coming at 100mm thick. Laminates can integrate many thicknesses and arrangements to suit a certain requirement. Most importantly, many different types of structural glass can be arranged in the laminated formation, including toughened, annealed, heat-strengthened and bent glass for example. However, toughened and heat-strengthened glasses both cause small amplitude waves as a result of the rollers used in the process. This in turn, enhances the separation between the laminated glasses and ultimately the PVB is impractical. Therefore, resin laminating should be instead. When using a PVB interlayer, the sheets of glass have the PVB interjected bet ween them and then this sandwich travels through an oven of about 70oC, and then passes between rollers which squeeze out the excess air from the bonding. The laminated glass is then placed in an autoclave, heated at 140 oC and at a pressure of 0.8N/mm2. It is possible to manufacture laminated glass at a maximum of 6m by 3m. In resin laminating, the two principal resins are acrylic and polyester. The glass sheets are held together at a right distance apart using double-sided tape around the perimeter. The resin can then be poured in between the two sheets, and once the air has been extracted the open edge can be sealed, and the laminate is stored horizontally to allow the resin to cure and solidify. The curing occurs through UV light or chemical reaction. The size that can be manufactured using this method is dependable on available glass pane sizes (ISE, 24). The structural behaviour of the laminated glass varies, depending on the duration of the load. Hooper (1973) demonstrated that the duration of the loads affected the behaviour of the laminate. With short-term loads the laminate acted compositely, whilst with long-term loads, the load was shared between the two glass sheets, in proportion to their relative stiffnesss, as a result of the deformation of the interlayer (ISE, 24). To determine this behaviour, the deflection of the panel under a specific load should be measured and then compared to the deflection calculated using finite element software. This would allow for the equivalent thickness used in the software to be adjusted to give the same deflection measured, in order to determine the equivalent thickness of the laminated glass pane that should be used for optimum design (Chen; Lui, Ch.29). An increase in the temperature, results in the interlayer softening and a reduction in the composite behaviour. Laminated glass is highly valuable as it offers various performance benefits. For instance, if one or both of the layers are impacted and breaks, the interlayer prevents penetration and allows any broken glass to stay bonded to the interlayer. Additionally, an increase in the thickness of the interlayer increases the penetration resistance of the glass (ISE, 24). Fig 29.9 Displays laminated glass behaviour once broken (Chen; Lui, Ch.29). Toughened Glass Chemically Toughened Glass: Chemically toughened glass implements the principle of a compressive surface layer preventing crack propagation, where the compressive layer is a result from an ion exchange process. Therefore, flat glass that contains sodium ions is immersed in a molten salt bath (electrolysis baths (ISE, 23)), of potassium nitrate. As the temperature of the molten salt is insufficient to permit structural relaxation, the potassium ions force themselves into the sodium sites, consequently, putting the surface under compression (Clare, Ch.23). Although it is an advantage that unlike thermal toughening, thinner glass sheets can be toughened, it results in thinner compressive layers, which are less robust than the thicker layer created through thermal toughening (ISE, 23). Also, the strength of glass can be increased by ten times depending on glass composition (Clare, Ch.23). Thermally Toughened Glass: Thermal toughening of glass is achieved by heating annealed (float) glass plate to about 620-650oC, whereby it begins to soften at this point (ISE, 23). The outer surfaces are then cooled rapidly by cooled air blasts, and the exterior layers quickly cooled and contracted. A thin layer of high compress stress the surface occurs, with a region of tensile stress at the centre of the glass (Fig 29.7). The parabola represents the stress distribution across the thickness of the glass pate, which is also in self-equilibrium. The physical properties of the particular glass used and the geometric shape of the glass governs the exact shape of the curve. Toughened glass has a bending strength is three to five times

Three Characters with Good Intentions in Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet :: Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet

Based on the impulsive, irrational Veronese society, many of the characters in Romeo and Juliet believe that they are doing everything â€Å"all for the best.† Three characters which exemplify this fully are Lord Capulet, Tybalt and Friar Lawrence. All the characters are products of their own society, Veronese society. Status is everything, money buys anything. Woman must marry well and produce many offspring. Men believe strongly in defending their honor by any means available especially violence. When there is a fight in the market place, Capulet rushes to fight for his honor, â€Å"my sword I say, old Montague is come...† Capulet denies Paris’ request to marry Juliet â€Å" and too soon marred are those so early made,† acting for his own good because he wants Juliet to produce many offspring to carry on the Capulets bloodline, since she is his only surviving child. When at the ball Capulet demands Tybalt to let Romeo be,† content thee, gentle coz, let him alone,† but this just fuels Tybalts anger towards Romeo, which eventually ends up in Tybalt causing his own death. Capulet believes he is giving his child the best when he announces her engagement to Paris† she shall be married to this noble earl,† and believes Paris will make a good husband for Juliet. When Juliet refuses Capulet thinks it best to threaten her, â€Å"I will drag thee,† but this just makes Juliet turn to more drastic measures. When asked by Benvolio to make peace in the streets, Tybalt bluntly responds,† talk of peace, I hate the word. As I hate hell all Montagues.† This is the attitude of Tybalt throughout the play. He believes he is doing all for the best and uses violence as his tool. He gets angry at the ball with Romeo being there, â€Å"villain as a guest,† and believes it best to defend his family’s honor by later taking revenge. When Tybalt finds Romeo, he thinks it best to fight him and when he ends up killing Mercutio he believes he has done his duty by causing Romeo the same hurt he has brought Tybalt, â€Å"the injuries that thou hast done me.† Friar Lawrence is by the far the character that displays â€Å"working for the best,† the most. The three main events are the marriage, the plan and the death, all three of which the friar is very involved. The friar originally marries Romeo and Juliet in hopes that the feud between the two families will end, â€Å"to turn your households’ rancor to pure love.

Ethics of Offshoring Novo Nordisk

Critical issued of the appropriateness of conducting clinical trials in emerging countries has arisen over years. Being a leading company in biopharmaceutical industry, Novo Nordisk faces the critiques of whether it is justice to offshoring their clinical trials in developing economies. With the consistency of ethical principles brought up by Novo Nordisk, the company would be able to move their trials into emerging economies with the best interest for stakeholders. I will also propose ideas to Mr, Dejgaard for possible approach to media as well as the practices that Novo Nordisk could have changed over time at the end. Conducting Clinical Trials in Emerging Economies With Utilitarian approach, every party has different perspectives in the outcome of an action. In this case, we have shareholders, employees, customers, supply chain, government and local communities, with secondary stakeholders of media, special interest groups and NGOs. For customers, government and local communities, they emphasize more on the proof of efficacy and safety of medical products. While shareholders, employees, supply chain care more of the profitability as a whole in general. As a result, Novo Nordisk will be better off maximizing its profits while holding their ethical justice for conducting clinical trials in emerging countries. Economic Aspect As the Nobel prize winner, Milton Friedman pointed out that making profit will be the first priority for business to fulfill social responsibility, Novo Nordisk has every right to maximize its best interest for its stakeholders include shareholders, employees, customers, suppliers, governments and local communities. From financial performance stand point, conducting clinical trials in emerging economies benefits Novo Nordisk from saving costs, accessing to larger demographic participant, obeying less strict rules applied, and establishing efficacy in different environmental onditions. Ethical Aspect On the other hand, firms should consider the corporate social responsibility brought by the society. Firms definitely need to incorporate their highest moral standards to build trust and reputation for themselves in order to better off in long run. Novo Nordisk always follows the regulation from Helsinki Declaration with other international ethical guidelines. They made sure that the inte rest and well-being of the trial subject should always transcend over the interest of science, society and commerce. Decision Principles Even though I think conducting clinical trials in emerging economies is beneficial to the firm, Novo Nordisk should still follow below guidelines for this major decision to protect its own reputation and serve the best interest for every stakeholder: †¢ Execute clinical trials when the internal organization is well established and external environment is proper regulated in emerging countries. †¢ Conduct placebo clinical trials when they are scientifically and ethically justified. †¢ Ensure the human rights of the participants in emerging countries associated with the predictable risks Responses to The Media I understand that Mr. Dejaard holds a high ethical stands, and is not interested in misleading the public or ethical dissembling in the response. It is also important to clear up the actions Novo Nordisk has taken for the past years and give public a clear picture of how the firm is operating. If a journalist is inviting for an interview, Mr. Dejaard should present himself into the public and response to the inquiry people have, otherwise, absence will only show irresponsible image that he might try to escape from the issue. Medical Ethics I will suggest Mr. Dejaard to pull out historical data indicating that the random checks investigated from Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the American and European authorities have never identified ethical problems in clinical trials in emerging economies. Second, assert the ethic codes from their company will help the publics to receive the image of Novo Nordisk has complied with the Helsinki Declaration of the World Medical Association. Ethical Business Media might inquiry the fairness of conducting placebo experiment in emerging countries by Novo Nordisk based on the industry trends in recent time. Mr. Dejaard could response to them that Novo Nordisk usually stay away from placebo trials, and only used in phase 1 trials which only healthy volunteers participated. Also, Novo Nordisk framed new business ethics policy in 2005 with generally accepted high standards while training managers and employees attending workshops and offering e-learning policy. To better respond to the media, Mr. Dejaard could also indicate that Novo Nordisk will try to implement some new action plan that could benefit stakeholders as a whole in order to minimize ethical conflicts. I suggest the following action plan for Novo Nordisk to benefit them in long run. Action Plan Enhance Auditing System To build trust for the stakeholder for Novo Nordisk, I believe the firm should develop a more solid auditing system. Instead auditing 10% of all trials, Novo Nordisk should increase the rate up to 50% or more. From a public view, 10% of investigating in all trials is not sufficient enough to prove that the trials are ethical conducted. With the increasing number of trials being audited and investigated, the quality of the clinical trials could be better controlled. Build up Placebo Experiment Standard In the â€Å"Clinical Trials: Novo Nordisk’s Position,† it pointed out that placebo will only be used as comparator when scientifically and ethical justified. It is quite unclear for public to know what would be an appropriate placebo experiment for Novo Nordisk to conduct while proven therapy is available. It is important to insiders to identify whether or not conducting placebo experiment under certain circumstances will have any additional risk and irreversible harm.

Of Mice and Men †Character study of Curly’s wife Essay

The novel ‘ Of Mice and Men’ is set in America and is about two travelling workers who have been chased off one ranch because Lennie, one of the men did not know how to behave himself. Lennie is large, heavy and ponderous and George is small quick, dark, sharp and restless. Another tragedy happens on the ranch like in weed because Lennie used his strength to kill Curley’s wife. I can sympathise with Curley’s wife although she was a flirt with the other men she was not expecting to be killed by Lennie. We first meet Curley’s wife in chapter two. She is described as heavily made up and wears tarty red shoes. She poses her figure outlined in the doorway of the bunkhouse and is always aware that men are looking at her. This makes me think that she is just looking for attention from the men. George shows the reader that he does not like Curleys wife because George tells Lennie that she is jailbait and for Lennie to stay away from her. Lennie see’s her as an attractive young lady but she is really just a threat to the men on the ranch. In chapter three there is a big fight involving Curly and Lennie. Curley has not liked Lennie since he was looking at Curleys wife so Curley just lost his rag and started punching Lennie but then Lennie just reached for Curley and just grabbed his hand and started squeezing his hand and his hand crumbled in Lennies hand, George told Curley to tell everybody that he got his hand caught in the machine and that is what he told everyone. This just shows how Curley’s wife is acting like a tart and a flirt to get all the men in trouble with Curley.Curley feels insecure because of his wife’s behaviour. In chapter 4 Curleys wife was heavily made. I can sympathise with her because all she is trying to do is make some friends on the ranch but every time she tries to talk to someone they all think she is trying to flirt because she is desperate for attention because she has got an unhappy marriage with Curley and that the men think that she is trying to get them in trouble with Curley.I fell sorry for Curleys wife because on the ranch she was all alone. In chapter 5 we learn that Curleys wife had a dream to be in the movies. I do feel sorry for Curley’s wife because she could have been in the movies but that was just a pipe dream because now she is stuck on the ranch married to Curley with no friends. Curley and his wife have only been married for two weeks and already they both hate it being together on the ranch. I think Steinbeck is trying to get across to the readers that she has no one in the whole world that cares for her. Her death was brutal and quick, at first lennie was just playing with the pup then he broke its neck and that is what he done to Curley’s wife. My final thoughts on Curleys wife is all she was trying to do is make friends on the ranch but she just got pushed out everyone. In chapter six it is hard to feel sympathy for her because she was flirting with the men but she did not deserve to be killed by Lennie. I feel sympathy for Curley’s wife although she was a big flirt and she got treated badly by Curley, she did not deserve to be killed. I think Steinbeck included Curley’s wife in the story because I think that she makes the story interesting because she is the story.

Constitution of 1917 essays

Constitution of 1917 essays Nationalism hit home in Mexico when the Constitution of 1917 was written. Neocolonialism was now at an end when Porfirio Diaz was over thrown in 1910. During this time, the masses and especially the middle class wanted a total social, economical, and political reform in Mexico. After Diaz left, Mexicos politics became very unstable and was marked by power struggles and revolutions. Finally, a movement that was better organized, involving more urban and middle classes, lead by Venustiano Carranza was able to take power and draft the Constitution of 1917. The Constitution of 1917 was a remake of the constitution that was created by Benito Juarez in 1857. The ideas that had embodies this constitution were long outdated and did not represent the new nationalistic views of the people. Three important points presented in this constitution concentrated on topics such as religion, education, nationalization of industries, and the rights of workers that had made up much of the masses. For example, article 3 stated that primary education must be mandatory and free. Most importantly, it must be free from all religion affiliation and influence. This was a major change in social reforms. Previously, the Catholic Church had dominated the sector of society, but as other articles of the Constitution of 1917 would imply, the church would lose nearly all of its power. Priest would not longer even be allowed to wear their religious clothing in public. Another important objective of the constitution was nationalization of lands and industries. This would be included in article 27 which stated that all minerals such as gold, silver, oil and water located under the soil would be now owned by the state. This article created many eruptions because previously these rights had rested in the hands of foreign companies such as those in the United States, a very powerful influence on Mexico during these times. For Mexico, Article 27 provided...

Individual, community and macro points of view on migration Essays

Individual, community and macro points of view on migration Essays Individual, community and macro points of view on migration Essay Individual, community and macro points of view on migration Essay Migration does not always coupled with growth unless it was given proper measures and economic restructuring (Appleyard: 1992; Hammar et al. : 1997;Ghosh: 1998). The major reason for migration is considered to be for economic purposes. History showed evidences that the immigrants and their descendants play an important role in the economic growth of the host countries. Developed countries which welcome immigrants become richer and richer. In addition to the openness of the immigrants to all types of work, they can also work under cheap labor that the natives will reject.This allows the old businesses such as textiles and garments to still exist adding to the income of the host country. Migration of skilled workers will further strengthen the skills and talents pool of the country. These enhance their productivity and economical gains. Simultaneous with the gain of brain and skills of the host country is the loss of the brain and skills of the country of origin which are oftentimes the poor countries or the developing countries. This may bring brain drain or loss of the trained, educated and skilled individuals which will inhibit the development of the native country or country of origin.Dependence to foreign countries will be one of the consequences of this which will post negative effect on productivity and economy of the native country. Some researchers, however, regarded immigration to contribute to economic growth of the native country through the remittances that the immigrants send to their family. These remittances are the major source of foreign exchange in developing countries which alleviate the poverty line. According to the International Migration Data, global remittances to developing countries worldwide are estimated at $204 billion per year.(International migration data) The countries who registered the highest remittances are Mexico, India, Philippines, Egypt and Morocco. ( International migration data) This enormous value made the home countries considered their emigrants to have the major role in improving its economy. It contributed to the fluidity of cash flow and development of business sectors. Realization of the major participation of emigrants’ remittances made the home government sets priority regarding the welfare of these workers.Researches showed that these remittances tend to be invested to the home country for housing, consumption, land, loan payment and savings and to business which the home government targets. (Addy, p. 16) Their families are well supported in establishing their own business in the country and given other privileges. The increasing value of remittances and the business established are expected to balance the effect of brain drain, the source country is experiencing. At the personal level, the immigrant faces a quandary on culture and environment.Furthermore, in the foreign land, he is also vulnerable to racial discrimination, exploitation and deportation. He is forced to embrace whatever is offered to him for a common good. Coping with these adaptations to host country’s norms and practices simultaneous with physically adapting to climate and health conditions requires a great level of energy and determination. Absence of the family members also adds to the burden the immigrant is experiencing. New technologies of communication help in this endeavor which makes it easier to gain emotional stability.Both positive and negative effects do not limit to the individual alone. Whatever happens to the immigrant in the host country will definitely affect his family in the home country. Studies showed that the family is more affected when the migrant worker is a woman for basically she is the homemaker and takes care of the children. Nowadays, there is an increasing number of migrant women accounting for 48 per cent international migrants. Some effects radiates from the family to the community. The flow of income, for example can be manifested in the economics within the area.This will be radiated further to the home country reducing the poverty. They also contribute to development through investments, business or entrepreneurial activities and the return of newly developed skills and knowledge. The community of the host country, on the other hand, may initially be skeptical of accepting the immigrant. On their point of view, the immigrants can change and influence their economy and other values. A community which does not allow immigrants may be giving up the values, education, perhaps specialization and other benefits brought by the immigrants.

Business overview of British American Tobacco

Business overview of British American Tobacco British American Tobacco (BAT) is the world’s second largest tobacco group by global market share. BAT produces cigarettes demanded by one-eighth of the world’s one billion adult smokers and this particular company is holding robust market position in each of their regions. Besides that, BAT has leadership in more than 50 markets. Based on last year’s performances (2009), BAT’s subsidiaries enabled the worldwide government to gather more than  £26 billion a year in taxes, including excise duty on their products which total up to almost nine times the Group’s profit after tax. BAT, which was founded in 1902, has existed as a significant global presence for over 100 years. By 1912, the company had become one of the world’s top dozen companies by market capitalization. This company works with thousands of tobacco farmers worldwide, producing some 724 billion cigarettes through 50 cigarette factories over 41 countries. The company employs more than 600,000 people worldwide. BAT’s workforce is of multi-cultural and they have devolved structure, with each local company having wide freedom of action and responsibility for their own operations. Within a framework of principles, standards, policies, strategies and delegated authorities, decisions are made as close as possible to the local stakeholders of each business. BAT operates according to responsibility seeing that their products pose risks to health. The business stresses on managed responsibility as it is integral to their strategy and through dialogue with their stakeholders, they are working towards commercial objectives in ways consistent with changing expectations of a modern tobacco business. This international tobacco group is the only group with a significant interest in tobacco leaf growing. Their companies run leaf programmes providing direct agronomy support to farmers, covering all aspects of crop production and environmental best practice. In 2009, the group purchased about 400,000 tonnes of tobacco leaves, grown by more than 250,000 farmers. BAT ensures the employees’ welfare. The company has specially carried out a global employee opinion survey also known as â€Å"Your Voice† to give them a secure and confidential way to voice their opinion about working at British American Tobacco. BAT’s business starts with their consumers and brands. The company focuses more on meeting preferences of adults who have chosen to consume tobacco and differentiating their brands from their competitors rather than encouraging people to start smoking or to smoke more. The business’ portfolio of more than 250 brands is based on distinct ‘must-win’ consumer segments which are: international, premium, lights and adult smokers aged below 30. ‘Dunhill’, ‘Kent’, ‘Lucky Strike’ and ‘Pall Mall’ are the four Global Drive Brands which cover the premium and value for money price segments. They grew by 4 per cent in 2009 (8 billion more cigarettes). The business is also increasing the profile of Vogue in the super premium segment and Viceroy, a leading low price international brand besides developing their Global Drive Brands. The growth of their brands is driven by innovation ranging from filters to flavours and packaging to cigarette formats. The business provides a mix of brand balanced between premium, mid-price and low-price. Besides that, the business applies the four managerial functions in its organization management; planning, organizing, leading and controlling. We have also interviewed a manager of British American Tobacco Singapore for further understanding.

Polynesian Questions and Answers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Polynesian Questions and Answers - Essay Example allotted $15 million annually to aid them. This brought about the sudden change in the people and had significantly impacted on their culture but did nothing to enable them to implement a self-sustaining economy (Dunford and Ridgell, 1996, p. 60-62). The people came to be overly dependent on the financial aid extended to them and started the commotion fuelled by greed and disparity primarily because of the mismanaged resources that landed constantly on an ill-prepared group of people. The concept of family before the advent of dependency in Micronesia had drastically changed over the last decades. The social unit was characterized by nuclear families that lived together in a compound with harmonious relations with each other. Hezel describes this community where in Chuuk for example dwellings would be in a single cluster of land where extended family units live and in this area there would be what is called a fanang which is basically a cookhouse where the families would take turns i n cooking the meal enough for every member of the nuclear family. The will also be an uut which serves many purposes such as a meetinghouse or a dormitory for the unmarried men as well as a place for them to learn. Other islands would entail similar practices such as Chuuk where most would be centrally matrilineal such as Marshalls and Pohnpei. This would take its turn and change when Western imposition found its way to them (Hezel, 2001, p.9-10). It was in 1991 after having been bona fide member of the United Nations when the Federated States of Micronesia had to elect their own government officials in a legislature who will choose among themselves the person to represent them as president. The people were allowed to migrate to the United States of America where approximately 2,000 flocked to Guam, Hawaii and mainland United States, a great block settling in the two previously mentioned U.S. territories (Dunford and Ridgell, 1996, p. 90-91). The people found this mass migration to be a necessity in order to provide for their underprivileged families by sending them remittances from foreign land instead of staying in a direly impoverished country. With many of its productive citizens abroad labouring on foreign land, Micronesia suffered continued economic immobility for lack of effective economic policy carried over from its years as a trust territory. The islands became excessively dependent on the annual budget provided by the United States and they were not able to cultivate a sense of economic stability since aid regularly comes their way. Father Hezel maintains that though a great number of Micronesians have settled in U.S. soil, many still find themselves deeply rooted to their native land. â€Å"Anyone who thinks that Micronesian emigrants abroad simply vanish one day never to be seen again need only to scan the departure area of a return flight to the islands to discover that this is far from the case (Hezel, 2001, p.159). The mass of Micronesians who were able to immigrate to the United States affects health care and education in the sense that they add up to the government expenditure necessary to finance public education and health care. Most of them have found a permanent home far from their native land and this equates to additional families that rely on government support to live according to decent

Violation of Human Rights by Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam - Sri Research Paper

Violation of Human Rights by Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam - Sri Lanka - Research Paper Example The number of internally displaced people is also still high as many people fear the recurring of attacks if they are to go back without the security being given to them. Many have as a result escaped to India. The restrictions of the government on humanitarian aid have hampered the provision of basic needs to the displaced people and many people die in the camps as a result. Many observers have cited that there is still a climate of fear in the country and that there are crucial human rights that are still being violated .There are several feeble rights in the country that are still being violated. The judicial system is manipulated by the government officials. Privacy rights of citizens are being infringed by the government and in many instances it has spurred the denial of human rights- right to fair public trial, right to privacy, right to freedom of speech, right of press which is allegedly the poorest in all democratic countries, right of assembly and association. Journalists that are critical of the government have reportedly been harassed by public authorities (Report by the international crisis group, 2007). In addition, the government has hindered the operations of several non-governmental organisations. Official corruption especially in election law violations has raised concerns where the presidential and parliamentary elections are nothing bu t fair. Politically, the president has made amendments in his favor. The specific human rights abuses with regards to the universal declaration are several. Human rights have been under siege before and after the war. The cease fire exists only in name as the country has still not recovered from its human rights crisis. Everyone should be given equal dignity and rights (article 1), no one should be discriminated by the basis of their sex, race or color (article 2), the right to life liberty and security (article 3) has been undermined. The declaration asserts that people should not be subjected to torture (article 5) neither should they be held unlawfully (article 6). People affected should be compensated by a national tribunal for having his acts violated (article 8), and according to article 10 everyone must have a fair hearing. Unfortunately, Sri Lanka has not taken these rights into account to put them in to practice. Actually almost all rights have been violated and even worse no tangible actions have been done. As a result social progress and th e general standard of life have deteriorated (universal declaration charter). Generally the human rights in the country are weak. There is violence against people on the basis of their sexual orientation where women are discriminated. Trafficking in persons and child abuse/ child labor are another rights that have been violated

Economic questions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Economic questions - Assignment Example ect an offer of zero units, but at an offer of one unit they will accept it if they are self-interested and risk-neutral because it is one more unit than they would be getting if they rejected the one unit offer. c) The subgame perfect Nash equilibrium does not match the actual behavior at all. The different assumptions we can make in part a to explain this is basically that if people feel that the amount they are getting is unfair, they will try to hurt the other person as well as themselves by making sure nobody gets anything. 2- In this situation, the drug-dealer’s best option is to go to the park because if the officer is at the park the dealer will still make 50 deals whereas if they are both on the street he will only make 30 deals. The officer can do better if she stays on the street but knows the drug dealer will do better at the park given that they both choose the same place. Therefore, the most likely payoff would probably be the bottom right square where 50 deals are made and 120 are stopped. However, Player Two has a bigger payoff when they are at different locations. Because of this, a mixed-strategy Nash equilibrium shows that the dealer would average about 100 deals, meaning the officer would be able to stop an average of 70 deals. If Player Two is self-regarding, Player One will benefit more from sending payment if Player Two delivers (P,D). In this situation Player One will also make a profit if they don’t send payment and Player Two delivers (NP, D). In the other two situations Player One & Player Two will benefit equally (NP,K) and Player One will lose in the payment – non delivery situation (P,K). If Player Two is reciprocal, Player Two stands to benefit more from a payment and delivery situation (P,D), as well as benefiting more from a payment and non-delivery situation and a non-payment, non-delivery situation (NP, K). The only situation where Player one benefits more is where they don’t pay but the item is still delivered (NP,

Discuss how an organisation's competitive advantage can be enhanced Essay - 1

Discuss how an organisation's competitive advantage can be enhanced with the introduction of new technology - Essay Example Many companies nowadays are trying to manage their businesses with the comfort and efficiency brought by the use of new technology in their operation. However, it is not only those online companies that are directly under the influence of new technology. All organisations especially those that have very complex activities rely heavily on the use of new technology. The car manufacturing industry for instance is relying greatly on the cutting-edge technology in order to meet the requirements of their customers and the prevailing market trend. In addition, the mobile communication industry and other related industries are trying to elaborate the importance of technology in order to go along well with the recent trend and development of business activities and operations in their specific areas. It is therefore a common understanding that the implementation of new technology in an organisation brings forward specific advantages and one of them is the efficiency which the bottom line is j ust to enhance the operation in order to achieve organisational goals. In line with this, new technology is strongly associated with competitive advantage. Every organisation seems to be using advanced technology, but the question remains how exactly it brings them certain competitive advantage. ... None about new technology is mentioned as part of these strategies for competitive advantage. However, it is clear that nowadays, using either one of these generic strategies would mean integrating the idea of new and existing technology. In the case of Wal-Mart as renowned retailing company in the United States, its generic strategy is low-cost for its product offerings. However, part of the institution of this strategy in the organisation is its highly computerised value-chain management system especially for its multinational and highly globalised operation. This is to ensure that whatever it has started so far can be substantially enhanced to the fullest with the integration of new technology. Wal-Mart viewed new technology as essential part of its complex operation especially that it operates at a global setting and in order for it to become sustainable when it comes to its low-cost-product strategy. Toyota is known for its focus differentiation strategy. However, in the process of creating it, the use of new technology is integrated in its entire operation. Its high level of standard quality product does not only enhance its cost advantage over its competitors but it specifically tries to say something about the image of its brand. Its brand image is associated with high level of cutting-edge technology and this means a lot to its marketing effort, strategy and eventually competitive advantage. In the age of globalisation, competition has become fierce allowing every organisation to enhance communication of their product offerings (Wetherly and Otter, 2011). Thus, individuals are bombarded with different information. The best information prevails and it is

The Use of DDT in Malaria Vector Control Article

The Use of DDT in Malaria Vector Control - Article Example As DDT is mainly used in indoors, it eventually generates the risks of deterioration of human health by a certain degree. This can be owing to the reason that direct exposure of this pesticide can damage the health of humans. Also, it can also be identified that there exist no such substitutes of DDT in order to prevent human health from severe diseases such as malaria. The other significant toxicology data which can be taken into concern in order to make the decision concerning the use of DDT in malaria vector control is that DDT is also responsible for causing various severe complexities. These complexities might comprise early pregnancy loss, fertility loss, pancreatic cancer, breast cancer, leukemia, diabetes, pyrethroids and neurodevelopmental deficits among others. By taking into concern the aforesaid toxicology data, it can be ascertained that DDT indeed imposes serious health hazards to the humans which is a major cause of concern. It can be viewed in this regard that due to the seriousness of this issue, countries such as the United States is strongly working upon to develop appropriate alternative pesticide in order to reduce the health hazards and provide health-related benefits to the humans. But relating to the case of Africa which has a record of occurring the disease i.e. malaria, World Health Organization has allowed indoor use of DDT. But the main dilemma concerning this factor is that DDT also acts as a strong deterrent to fight against malaria as well as vector control... It can be viewed in this regard that due to the seriousness of this issue, countries such as the United States is strongly working upon to develop appropriate alternative pesticide in order to reduce the health hazards and provide health related benefits to the humans. But relating to the case of Africa which has a record of occurring the disease i.e. malaria, World Health Organization (WHO) has allowed indoor use of DDT. But the main dilemma concerning this factor is that DDT also acts as a strong deterrent to fight against malaria as well as vector control and at the same time, it poses serious chronic health hazards to the humans (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, â€Å"DDT, DDE, AND DDD†). However, a decision of creating an alternative pesticide is needed to be taken which may help in resolving this particular issue by a certain degree (Berg, â€Å"Global Status of DDT and Its Alternatives for Use in Vector Control to Prevent Disease†). 2. USE THE FO UR PHASES OF THE DISPOSITION OF A TOXIC COMPOUND TO ASSESS THE TOXICITY OF DDT The four phases have been described hereunder. Absorption-DDT mainly gets absorbed in the human body when the pesticide is exposed to the skin and lung. Ingestion also happens due to DDT which enters into the human body causing deterioration in the health of human beings at large. Distribution-If DDT is able to enter the human body, then it is circulated/distributed to the entire body parts in a fast way. It also contains high amount of fat which quickly spreads into the body imposing adverse effect upon human’s health. Metabolism-The metabolism phase or process of DDT primarily include certain effective processes that encompass dechlorination, dehydrochlorination, oxidation,

Team Analysis Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Team Analysis Paper - Essay Example It was a new group and I think it was under a company’s program to hire university students during summer so that we will be enticed to join their company after graduation. There were only around three long time employees there and the rest were us, around 12 summer employees. Our team had a rough start. Mainly because we came from different background. There was an IT guy, an Accounting guy, african, asian, different university, etch.; basically the group is just very diverse that it was difficult to find a common ground for us to â€Å"break the ice† so to speak. We were dependent to Ahmed who graciously provided us the guidance and leadership we needed because the team were not talking to each other that much then. Our first project came and we were tasked to create a training module which will be recommended for approval. The first meeting was dreadful. Everybody was showing off that they are better than the next person. And I supposed that each of us felt slighted after that because each of our idea that was floated was countered, argued upon, no matter how sound it was. There was also a power struggle among us with most team members wanting to catch the attention of the manager as if they will be given a raise or promoted if they were able to do that. Ahmed, initially just let us do our thing and sensing that we are not going anywhere, took over and provided the direction. It was the only time that the team calmed down. Our succeding meetings are already calm albeit there are still subterfuge animosity among team members who do not like each other or felt better than the other. But as we go along, we were able to delineate expertise and identified whose idea mattered most depending on the subject matter. If its about networks, applications, then we refer it to our IT guy Mark. If it involves numbers, financial statements, our accounting guy Steve will take over. Our team’s animosity eventually subdued when we started going out on lunc hes together. Then the lunch meetings progressed to cafeshops and having fun through the weekend. There, we were able to know each member thoroughly and found that they are in fact interesting person. We spent hours and hours until early morning talking and did not even noticed it because we were so engrossed with our conversations. The team bonded and became really good friends. This new found friendship reflected in our work. Meetings which usually lasted for several hours due to arguments were cut short and we begin getting praises from our boss with the quality of our work. Also, we were enjoying ourselves at work that it was no longer a drag like our first two weeks. I believe that we were doing very well as a team because Ahmed, our manager had been getting praises from the upper management with our output. But sadly, we have to part ways. We already knew this from the first day we begun our work that once class has started, we have to go back to the university. The team membe rs were hugging each other as we bid our goodbye with some teary eyed and we cannot believe that we once hated each other during our first meetings. Analysing my experience with my previous team, I thought that the experience was only peculiar to us. But when I did research and stumbled on the work of Tuckman Model of team development, I found out that what happened to our

The Use of DDT in Malaria Vector Control Article

The Use of DDT in Malaria Vector Control - Article Example As DDT is mainly used in indoors, it eventually generates the risks of deterioration of human health by a certain degree. This can be owing to the reason that direct exposure of this pesticide can damage the health of humans. Also, it can also be identified that there exist no such substitutes of DDT in order to prevent human health from severe diseases such as malaria. The other significant toxicology data which can be taken into concern in order to make the decision concerning the use of DDT in malaria vector control is that DDT is also responsible for causing various severe complexities. These complexities might comprise early pregnancy loss, fertility loss, pancreatic cancer, breast cancer, leukemia, diabetes, pyrethroids and neurodevelopmental deficits among others. By taking into concern the aforesaid toxicology data, it can be ascertained that DDT indeed imposes serious health hazards to the humans which is a major cause of concern. It can be viewed in this regard that due to the seriousness of this issue, countries such as the United States is strongly working upon to develop appropriate alternative pesticide in order to reduce the health hazards and provide health-related benefits to the humans. But relating to the case of Africa which has a record of occurring the disease i.e. malaria, World Health Organization has allowed indoor use of DDT. But the main dilemma concerning this factor is that DDT also acts as a strong deterrent to fight against malaria as well as vector control... It can be viewed in this regard that due to the seriousness of this issue, countries such as the United States is strongly working upon to develop appropriate alternative pesticide in order to reduce the health hazards and provide health related benefits to the humans. But relating to the case of Africa which has a record of occurring the disease i.e. malaria, World Health Organization (WHO) has allowed indoor use of DDT. But the main dilemma concerning this factor is that DDT also acts as a strong deterrent to fight against malaria as well as vector control and at the same time, it poses serious chronic health hazards to the humans (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, â€Å"DDT, DDE, AND DDD†). However, a decision of creating an alternative pesticide is needed to be taken which may help in resolving this particular issue by a certain degree (Berg, â€Å"Global Status of DDT and Its Alternatives for Use in Vector Control to Prevent Disease†). 2. USE THE FO UR PHASES OF THE DISPOSITION OF A TOXIC COMPOUND TO ASSESS THE TOXICITY OF DDT The four phases have been described hereunder. Absorption-DDT mainly gets absorbed in the human body when the pesticide is exposed to the skin and lung. Ingestion also happens due to DDT which enters into the human body causing deterioration in the health of human beings at large. Distribution-If DDT is able to enter the human body, then it is circulated/distributed to the entire body parts in a fast way. It also contains high amount of fat which quickly spreads into the body imposing adverse effect upon human’s health. Metabolism-The metabolism phase or process of DDT primarily include certain effective processes that encompass dechlorination, dehydrochlorination, oxidation,

New Emission Standards Essay Example for Free

New Emission Standards Essay One of the growing Threats to Harley Davidson’s reign of dominance in US markets has been a growing awareness of the environment. In response to this, the bar for emission standards is continuously raised. In 2010 model year or newer motorcycles emission standards for both HC + NOx were reduced from 1.4 prior to 2010 to just 0.8 after 2010 (US Government Printing Office. 2013). For at least 5 years now, there have been rumors circulating that Harley Davidson would abandon the traditional air cooled designs in favor of a new liquid cooled lineup in response to ever growing emission standards (Huze. 2011). If emission control standards continue to tighten, Harley Davidson may be forced to do exactly that. Procurement of Raw Materials Historically, Harley Davidson has relied on limited number of suppliers for raw materials to provide the components used in its manufacturing plants. In some cases, the entire company’s business is dependent on just one supplier to deliver certain raw materials in time. The lack of versatility in this area means that rising input costs could lead to capacity issues in the long run. Additionally, increasing costs for commodities could lead to capacity constraints, ultimately leading to lower production (Harley Davidson, Inc. 2012). Competitive Landscape Currently, Harley Davidson holds 56% of the market share for heavyweight motorcycles, defined as those motorcycles that displace more than 650cc. To some this may be an impenetrable advantage in the market, to other, a source of vulnerability (Taylor III, 2012). For years, Harley has been the undisputed king of the â€Å"bad boys†, but in recent years up and coming companies such as Polaris are trying to muscle in to the motorcycle arena. Polaris, a company known for its snow mobiles has only recently begun selling motorcycles 14 years ago (Taylor III, 2012). Polaris has shown that it understands what its buyers want and has demonstrated success in achieving higher sales through its colorful names such as Victory, 8-Ball, and Jackpot lineup. With aggressive pricing strategies and comparable quality, Polaris has quickly passed foreign competitors such as Honda, Yamaha, and Kawasaki and is now setting its eyes on Harley Davidson after its recent acquisition of Indian. Harley Davidson – Opportunities (O) Global Expansion In response to declining domestic sales, Harley Davidson has decided to expand its global presence in China and India. In 1995 Harley Davidson entered the Hong Kong market, opening its first mainland China office just 10 years later in 2005 (Miller. 2012). Currently, Harley has 8 full service dealerships in china and have plans to open an additional 5 more within the next 5 years. Harley’s biggest challenges have been the understanding of foreign markets. In China for example, the motorcycle market was riddled with low cost economic alternatives for daily transportation. The average engine size ranges anywhere from just 50cc to 600c. With some of Harley’s heavyweights tipping the scales in the range of 800c to 1600cc beasts, the concept of heavyweight leisure riding was simply not understood yet in foreign markets. Harley would have to start from the ground up if it wants to succeed. Today, Harley has succeeded in growing its international presence in over 70 countries across the globe. Although growth into international markets has been substantial, there is still significant room for further expansion (Miller. 2012). New Product Launches Another area of opportunity for Harley Davidson lies in the arena of launching new products. In 2014 Harley expects to launch eight new models, a record number of new models within the same year. Harley realized that with the baby boomer generation coming to a close, younger audiences will demand new and innovative products. The company, now in its 110th year of operation, has launched a customer driven product development program dubbed â€Å"Project Rushmore† in hopes of succeeding in understanding what design elements are appreciated more by younger buyers (UPI.com. 2013). If they succeed, Harley could feasibly further expand its market share in both US and international markets significantly. Restructuring Plans The Milwaukee based motorcycle maker has succeeded in keeping its full-year shipment forecast intact despite signs of weakness in dealer sales in several markets (Reuters. 2013). In response to this, Harley Davidson has acknowledged the need to restructure the company into a leaner and more cost efficient beast if it is to maintain its market share and keep pace with the competition. Harley hopes to reduce the number of defaults on their loans, improve the company’s cash flows, and improve its liquidation strategy by having at least 12 months of projected liquidity in cash reserves. The company has set an ambitious goal to continue to widen its gross margin figures by nearly a full two percent in 2013 (Reuters. 2013). Harley Recognized that declining retail sales figures could no longer be simply shrugged off as weather related anomalies but were rather a generational decline of the number of loyal riders in the market. This suggests that younger rider’s between the ages of 18-34 are quickly becoming a significant portion of the market. Harley would need to restructure its operations in order to meet the demands of these new riders and develop both a strategy and a product that would appeal to them. Harley Davidson – Weakness (W) Product Recall Issues In late 2011, Harley Davidson recalled more than 300,000 motorcycles to fix a switch problem that presented a safety issue. The switch prevented the brake lights from coming on and could potentially cause the brakes themselves to fail as well (Associated Press. 2011). The defect has already caused at least one crash. As a result, the US Securities and Exchange Commission indicated that they expect that this recall will cost Harley anywhere from 10 to 12 Million Dollars. This coupled with another recall in 2012 for a faulty voltage regulator that affected an estimated 100,000 owners suggests that recalls are costing Harley a sizable chunk of their annual budget. Defects reasons have been tracked back to supplier quality issues arising in the manufacturing production chain. Dependence of Domestic Market Harley Davidson has recently celebrated its 110th year of business within the US. From its onset, it was clear that Harley’s target market was first and foremost the US markets. Much of Harley’s success has stemmed from targeting the baby boomer generation and appealing to big open spaces, the idea of freedom, and the feeling of exclusivity and belonging. Although business has steadily increased for Harley over the past century, it is clear that change is on the horizon. Harley’s competition is ever more aware of foreign markets and consistently devising entry strategies to further expand global market share (Burkey, 2009). Simply put, Harley has been lagging in this area. Harley’s flagship motorcycles carry a significantly higher price tag than foreign competing models making them appealing only to small elite group of riders that can afford the expense. Harley Davidson – Strengths (S) Brand Image Few people cannot instantly recognize the Harley Davidson brand. For over a century now, Harley Davidson has built a positive brand image by targeting a wide range of individuals. Harley Davidson has been continuously ranked among the top global brands in the world, holds over half of the heavyweight motorcycle market share in the US, and is ranked either first or second in the heavyweight motorcycle segment in at least nine countries across Europe (Harley Davidson, Inc. 2012). Historically, Harley Davidson has historically appealed to wide predominantly male audience ranging in ages from early 30s to late 50s. Recently, Harley Davidson has decided to further expand the brand by beginning successful marketing campaigns targeted at an audience of women. With the majority of its ads targeting a relatively specific group of individuals, Harley-Davidson has been able to build a community of enthusiasts around its brand that includes members from very diverse groups, and with almost no advertising. How does the king of heavyweight motorcycling keep its fans so loyal? It gives them a reason to belong (Rifkin. 1997). The symbolism of â€Å"belonging† is a powerful one reinforced by images of riding as part of a pack on the open road. This is further reinforced by a strong positive brand image that individuals frequently associate with superior quality and prestige of ownership. Broad Product and Service Portfolio One of Harley Davidson’s greatest strengths has been a long history of maintaining a broad product and service portfolio. Harley Davidson leverages its premium pricing model supported by a superior quality of its product line up ranging from an extensive line up of heavyweight, touring, custom, and performance motorcycles. Harley Davidson has also been able to successfully keep its owners engaged in personalizing and modifying their motorcycles by offering an extensive catalogue of parts and customization options. When you add the reliability of a two year warranty, and consider the superior level of service afforded to its owners, it is no wonder that Harley Davidson has been able to maintain the upper hand on its competition for so many years. The financial unit of the company has been successful in reducing the percentage of defaults and losses on its in house loans. While the annualized loss experienced on its managed retail motorcycle loans has come down from 1.58% to 1% in the last quarter, the retail 30+ day delinquencies on managed loans has come down from 3.68% to 2.56% (Trefis Team. 2012). Focused Research Harley Davidson continues to dominate market share in the United States commanding over 60% market share for the domestic market. Although Harley Davidson’s targeting of the youth market remains a subject of contention, their strategy remains crystal clear; to keep baby boomers in the saddle for as long as possible (Madson, 2013). To achieve this, Harley Davidson is exploring some concepts that may appeal to aging baby boomers such as a three wheeled Penster concept. The Trike concept has gained remarkable traction over the past few years and Harley Davidson has certainly taken notice. Harley Davidson Strengths and Opportunities (SO) Harley Davidson’s offensive strategy should focus on leveraging the company’s strengths such as its strong brand image and focused research and development to capitalize on opportunities such as further penetration into foreign markets. Harley Davidson is uniquely positioned with a globally recognized brand. This is a monumental advantage when comparing it to penetration strategies from relatively new motorcycle companies such as Polaris. Harley can utilize its strong focused research and development to study foreign market demands and develop a line of products to specifically appeal to that market. This would further help Harley in overcoming another one of its areas of opportunity around new product launches. Recently, Harley Davidson has shown significant progress in their expansion to the Chinese marketplace. Harley projects that within the next five years growing Chinese demand will support the opening of an additional 5 dealerships overseas (Miller. 2012). Growing global demand is proof that not only would this be a good business decision, but it is the necessary next step if Harley expects to keep up with its competition. Harley Davidson Strengths and Threats (ST) Harley Davidson faces some significant threats to its business in the form of changing emission standards for motorcycles, and an ever growing competitive landscape. Emission controls continue to tighten on a global scale making Harleys century long approach to air cooled engines all but obsolete (Huze. 2011). Furthermore, Harley faces some competitive threats from new entrants to the market like Polaris who are actively seeking to tap into Harley’s heavyweight motorcycle market share. Harley Davidson needs to develop a defensive strategy focusing on areas of strength such as focused research and development and broad product and service portfolio to ensure they overcome these threats. One solution would be a proactive approach to changing emission standards. Harley has been toying with the idea of introducing a lineup of liquid cooled motorcycles that would dramatically reduce their ecological footprint (Huze. 2011). Harley Davidson’s superior focused RD would have little issue with finding a way to adapt this new engine to existing models. Furthermore, the infrastructure for servicing these new engines, making adjustments, and maintaining them is already in place with is significant network of service centers around the globe. In doing so, they would not only be ready for any emission control changes that they may face in the future, but also be more competitive across product lines. Harley Davidson Weaknesses and Opportunities (WO) In recent years, Harley Davidson has literally spent millions of dollars dealing with significant recalls and associated issues (Associated Press. 2011). Most notably, two significant recalls that affected a total of more than 600,000 motorcycles over two years. Outside of the obvious cost associated with correcting the issue which is estimated to cost over 20MM over the course of 2009 and 2010, Harley Davidson is exposed to additional legal risk from possible accidents resulting from these defects (Associated Press. 2011). Harley has traced the source of the problem back to defects associated with its parts suppliers. This suggests the need for an improved quality control process prior to using the parts in production. Although this may present an additional cost initially, the reduction from costs associated with recalls off of Harley Davidson’s bottom line would be much more significant. Harley Davidson has already experienced success in its restructuring plans. The addition of inspection points could be seamlessly implemented with minimal impact to its existing business (Reuters. 2013). This would increase the chances of catching defects on parts prior to the parts being shipped to manufacturing. As a result, Harley would experience a reduction in the number of recalls in the coming years. Harley Davidson Weaknesses and Threats (WT) The combination of existing weaknesses to Harley Davidson’s business and the presence of potential threats in the market could potentially spell disaster. Harley should develop a strategy around minimizing their exposure to weakness and the avoidance of existing threats. Harley can achieve this by outsourcing the procurement of raw materials to a larger number of overseas suppliers while being supervised by in-house Harley Davidson quality control specialists to ensure a sustained level of quality of their products (Burkey. 2009). This would help to avoid one of Harley’s largest weaknesses, product recalls, as well as dramatically improve the availability of raw materials minimizing the impact that one single supplier could potentially have on their business (Taylor III. 2012). Furthermore, the fewer amount of recalls and the overall improved degree of quality would bolster the already strong Harley Davidson brand, improving its position in the competitive marketplace (Rifkin. 1997). Citations Associated Press. (Oct. 2011). Harley Recalls About 308,000 Motorcycles For Break Issue. USA Today / Money. Retrieved from: http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/money/industries/manufacturing/story/2011-10-2 4/harley-davidson-brakes-recall/50890560/1 on September 18, 2013. Burkey, Brent. (Oct 2009). Harley-Davidson Time for the tough decisions A plan to restructure core local Harley operations is in the hands of the company.York Daily Record. P4. Harley Davidson, Inc. (Aug 2012). Harley-Davidson, Inc. Financial and Strategic Analysis Review. Global Data. P1-3. Harley Davidson, Inc. (Jun 2012). SWOT Analysis. Company Report. P1-9. P9. Huze, Cyril. (Jun 2011). 2012 Harley-Davidson Liquid Cooled Engines. Cyril Huze Post. Retrieved from: http://cyrilhuzeblog.com/2011/06/17/2012-harley-davidson-liquid-cooled-engines/ on September 17, 2013. Madson, Bart. (Feb. 2013). H-D RD Product Development Center. Motorcycleusa.com. Retrieved from: http://www.motorcycle-usa.com/684/15599/Motorcycle-Article/H-D-R-D-Product-Development-Center.aspx on September 18, 2013. Miller, Paula M. (Jan-Mar 2012). Harley Davidson in China. China Business Review. P41-43. PR Newswire. (Jul 2013). Harley Davidson Post Second-Quarter 2013 Earnings, Revenue and Retail Sales Growth. Regional Business News. P.16. Reuters. (2013). Harley Earnings On Target As Restructuring Pays Off. Chicago Business Tribune. Retrieved from: http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2013-04-25/business/chi-harley-earnings-20130425_1_harley-davidson-inc-winnebago-industries-sales-volumes on September 17, 2013. Rifkin, Glenn. (Oct. 1997). How Harley Davidson Revs Its Brand. Strategy + Business. Retrieved from: http://www.strategy-business.com/article/12878?gko=ffaa3 on September 17, 2013. Taylor III, Alex. (Oct. 2012). The Hurdles At Harley Davidson. Motorworld. Retrieved from: http://money.cnn.com/2012/10/03/autos/harley-davidson-polaris.fortune/index.html on September 17, 2013. Trefis Team. (May. 2012). Harley Davidson Rides To $59 As Growth Hits On All Cylinders. Forbes Magazine. Retrieved from: http://www.forbes.com/sites/greatspeculations/2012/05/03/harley-davidson-rides-to-59-as-growth-hits-on-all-cylinders/ on September 17, 2013. UPI.com.

Media and Public Perceptions of crime

Media and Public Perceptions of crime Crime stories and representations are, and have always been, a popular focus of the mass media. The percentage of media content that is constituted by crime images and stories obviously will depend on the definitions of crime used. A glimpse at the television guide, the movies listings in the cinema, or press headlines, will highlight both the interest the general population has in crime and criminals, and the key role the media play in describing all features of criminal behaviour. People are excited with crime and justice (Howitt, 1998). From films, books, newspapers, magazines, television broadcasts, to everyday talks, we are continuously participating in crime talk. A large amount of this crime will be fictional, others, real life, and our enthusiasm for reading and watching about both seems to be evident. Television documentaries, news programmes and local or national newspapers emphasise and discuss crime and criminal justice issues on an everyday basis. Stories about crime are a more limited proportion of news, varying according to medium (e.g. radio, television, or print journalism) and market (e.g. quality or popular journalism). In this chapter we will analyse how the media influence public opinion through social cognitive theory and information processing theory. The publics knowledge and understanding of crime, criminal justice, police forces and police investigations, is often derived from the media and is greatly based on what they have watched or heard through various media forms (Jewkes, 2011). More generally, it is not feasible for people to know everything about society through their own experience thus the media has the role of informing and entertaining people. It is important to say that several studies have found a correlation between people views about crime and the criminal justice system, and the media. Dorfman (2001) found that 76 percent of the public said they modulated their opinions about crime from what they see or read in the news compared to those who get their primary information on crime from personal experience at 22 percent. It is not surprising that the academic interest in the field of criminology and criminal justice is growing as studies showed the popular media and general public interest in this area has the hi ghest percentage (Jewkes ,2011). Heath and Gilbert (1996) initiated that the association among media productions and offence is contingent on the features of the communication and the viewers. Production of great amounts of neighbourhood offence news creates enlarged fear between the outsized public, (Brillon, 1987; Sheley and Ashkins, 1981) whilst the presentation of great sums of non-local offence news has the contradictory result by construction the local audience feel safer (Liska and Baccaglini, 1990). Also, Chiricos et al (2000) found out that local and nationwide news are connected to fear of felony. The result of neighbouring news on fear of crime is stronger for people in elevated offence locations and persons who have passed through victimisation. Public perspectives toward police are in general positive (Huang and Vaughn, 1996). Nevertheless, there are a small number of studies that considered the medias control on peoples ratings of police force efficiency. A large amoun t of the literature concentrates on media depictions of police officers and results expose two contradictory views. Some researchers suggest that the police are displayed positively in the media, whilst other study argues that the police are unenthusiastically portrayed in the media (Pollak and Kubrin, 2007). Police presentations are often over-dramatised and romanticised by imaginary television felony dramas while the news media display the police as daring, qualified crime fighters (Surette, 1998; Reiner, 1985). In television crime dramas, the mainstreams of crimes are solved and unlawful suspects are successfully detained (Dominick, 1973; Estep and MacDonald, 1984; Carlson, 1985; Kooistra et al. 1998, Zillman and Wakshlag, 1985). Likewise, news presentations have a tendency to overstate the percentage of crimes that consequence in catch which projects a representation that police are more successful than official statistics show (Sacco and Fair, 1988; Skogan and Maxfield, 1981; Marsh, 1991; Roshier, 1973). The sympathetic vision of policing is partially a result of a police forces people relations scheme. Coverage of practical police actions creates a representation of the police as effectual and well-organised investigators of crime (Christensen, Schmidt and Henderson, 1982). Therefor e, a constructive police display strengthens usual opinions to law and order that engage enlarged police attendance, cruel penalties and rising police power (Sacco, 1995). Modern offences-solving shows like CSI, Law Order and a range of spin-offs has obviously increased public cognition of the function that science can take part in solving crimes and gathering proof which may be used to help convict the criminals. Also, numerals of researchers suggest that a symbiotic association subsists among news media workers and the police. It is argued that the police and the media involve in a commonly advantageous connection (Jewkes, 2011). The media wants the police to give them with rapid, trustworthy sources of offence information, while the police have a vested attention in retaining a constructive public image (Ericson, Baranek, and Chan, 1987; Fishman, 1981; Hall et al, 1978). Nonetheless, other researchers suggest that the police are not displayed completely positive in the news media. For example, Surette (1998) argues that docu-dramas and news small programs symbolise the police as heroes that fight bad people, up till now publish and broadcast news exemplify the police as unproductive and useless. Likewise, Graber (1980) argues that the wide-ranging public appreciates police presentation more positively compared with judges and alteration. In English courtrooms media coverage and the use of m icrophones or videos are not allowed (Howitt, 1998). However, Graber (1980) suggests that the media gives tiny information to critic police and that the news media centre on unhelpful criticism rather than helpful or triumphant crime prevention exertions. Basically, most media crime is penalised, but policemen are infrequently the heroes (Lichter and Lichter, 1983). Research examining the agenda-setting function of the news media has undergone a dramatic re-conceptualisation in recent years. No longer is research based on the nation noted by Cohen that the press may not be successful in telling us what to think but is stunningly successful in telling us what to think about (Cohen, 1963, p.13). Indeed, researchers now argue that, under certain circumstances, the news media do tell people what to think by providing the public with an agenda of attributes a list of characteristics of important newsmakers. Individuals mentally link these mediated attributes to the newsmakers to a simila r degree in which the attributes are mentioned in the media (Marsh, Ian, Melville and Gaynor, 2008). The Social Cognitive Theory is also called social learning, observational learning, or Modelling. This theory has its roots in psychology. This communication theory was developed by Albert Bandura in the 1960s. His idea was that people watch and learn by others, specifically they perform and imitate behaviours through observation by other people. In todays days increasingly media- society, the mass media communication becomes the basis of observational learning. In order to appropriately learn from the media a person must be exhibited to the media, then be able to encode and memorise the event, and finally be able to decode their view of the media into a suitable reply. This theory deals partly with media and how it affects behaviours. The modelling theory is mostly applied to the consequences of aggressive media on behaviour, but it can be applied to other variables like sex, pro social, or purchasing behaviour. Because of the powerful role the mass media get in the world, considera te the psychosocial mechanisms throughout representative communication effects human thought, affect, and action is of importance. Social cognitive theory provides an agentic conceptual framework in which to examine the decisive factors and mechanisms of such effects. Human behaviour has often been explicated in terms of unidirectional causation, in which behaviour is formed and forced either by ecological influences or by inside moods. Social cognitive theory explains psychosocial operations in terms of triadic reciprocal causation (Bandura, 1986). In this alternative view of self and society, individual factors in the figure of cognitive, affective, and biological events; behavioural patterns; and environmental events all function as interacting factors that influence each other (Bandura, 1986, 2001a). People are self-organizing, proactive, self-reflecting, and self-determining, not just reactive organisms formed by ecological events or inside forces. Human self-development and al teration are enclosed in social systems. Furthermore, personal organisation functions within a wide system of socio-structural influences. In these agentic communications, people are producers and also products of societal regimes. Private group and social arrangement function as co determinants in an included causal structure rather than as an intangible duality. Seen from the socio-cognitive viewpoint, peoples nature is a huge capability that can be shaped by straight and observational experience into a range of shapes within natural limits. To say that a main distinctive mark of people is their exceptional elasticity is does not to mean that they have no character or that they appear structure- less (Midgley, 1978). The flexibility, which is inherent to the nature of humans, depends on neurophysiological mechanisms and structures that have developed over time. These higher neural systems specialised for dealing out, remaining, and employing coded information give the ability for the very abilities that are noticeably human-genital symbolisation, foresight, axiological self-arrangement, pensive self-consciousness, and symbolic message (Bryant, Jennings, Zillmann and Dolf, 2002). Humans have developed a higher capability for observational learning that gives them the opportunity to enlarge their knowledge and skills quickly through information transferred by the rich range of models. Indeed, practically all behavioural, cognitive, and influencing learning from straight experience can be succeed representatively by observing peoples actions and its results for them (Bandura, 1986; Rosenthal Zimmerman, 1978). A large amount of social learning derives either knowingly or unknowingly from models in ones direct surroundings. However, a large amount of information about people values, ways of thinking, and behaviour norms is acquired from the lengthy modelling in the symbolic setting of the mass media (Bryant, Jennings, Zillmann and Dolf, 2002). The effects of media on the public can also be explained through information processing models which have been developed by cognitive psychologists (Graber, 1984; Kraus and Perloff, 1985). Information-processing research suggests that people have cognitive constructions, called schemas, which organise peoples thinking (see chapter 2). A persons system of schemas stores independent faiths, attitudes, principles, and choices (Rokeach, 1973). The schemas are straight concentration to related information, driven its understanding and assessment, provide conclusions when information is absent or vague, and make easy its memory (Fiske and Kinder, 1981, p. 173). Schemas do not select out all unknown or rough information, there are not filter of memory, they just help peoples mind to organise their thoughts. As Bennett (1981) argues, that information process, substantially fabricates parts of recognition and idealistic accusations and new Scholars have used many terms such as scripts, infere ntial sets, frames and prototypes to explain this situation. Information-processing theory identifies and assists clarify how stances derive from a dynamic interaction of new information with peoples pre-existing beliefs. (Entman, 1989) The explicit model of thinking that cognitive psychologists have been putting together thus interferes with the implied model in much of the media research. People are vulnerable to considerable media effects, according to the information processing theory, despite of the autonomy model suggestions which support that people ignore the most new or dissonant media reports. In the information-processing viewpoint, a person first values a media report for salience. If salient, the person works out the news according to rotes established in the schema system. Processing may drive the person either to store the information or abandon it; if the information stored, people may adopt new beliefs or change old beliefs (Entman, 1989). Social Psychology and Media effects Social psychologists talk about conformity and they argue that people act as group and define things and form their opinions as group, as the majority do. It is possible that a person has a different opinion from the group but the influence that he or she receives is much more dynamic. Thus, people change their opinion about a subject to suit to groups opinion (Gross, 2010) People modify their opinion in response the information that they receive from others, also when people do not feel that they have the accurate perception about a subject they look to others to perceive the stimulus situation accurately. This is called informational social influence (Bordens and Horowitz, 2000) But sometimes people change perception in response to pressure to conform to a norm or in order to gain social approval and avoid rejection they agree with the group because of their power (Wren, 1999)